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List of countries by system of government

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For further information, see List of forms of government.

World's states coloured by systems of government:
Parliamentary systems: Head of government is elected or nominated by and accountable to the legislature
  Constitutional monarchy with a ceremonial monarch
  Parliamentary republic with a ceremonial president
  Parliamentary republic with an executive president
Presidential system: Head of government (president) is popularly elected and independent of the legislature
  Presidential republic
Hybrid systems:
  Semi-presidential republic: Executive president is independent of the legislature; head of government is appointed by the president and is accountable to the legislature
  Assembly-independent republic: Head of government (president or directory) is elected by the legislature, but is not accountable to it
Other systems:
  Theocratic republic: Supreme Leader holds significant executive and legislative power
  Semi-constitutional monarchy: Monarch holds significant executive or legislative power
  Absolute monarchy: Monarch has unlimited power
  One-party state: Power is constitutionally linked to a single political party
  Military junta: Committee of military leaders controls the government; constitutional provisions are suspended
  Governments with no constitutional basis: No constitutionally defined basis to current regime, i.e. provisional governments or Islamic theocracies
  Dependent territories or places without governments
Note: this chart represents the de jure systems of government, not the de facto degree of democracy.
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This is a list of sovereign states and non-UN countries by de jure and de facto system of government.

Representative democratic systems

Representative democratic systems in the world are classified into parliamentary, presidential, semi-presidential, and assembly-independent systems.[1] While de jure having democratic system of government, countries below may be hybrid regimes in practice with de facto government system noted in parenthesis.

See also: Democracy indices

Parliamentary systems

In a parliamentary system the head of government and a cabinet are responsible to the legislature, which means they can be dismissed via a vote of no confidence passed by a majority.

Constitutional monarchies

The following countries have a constitutional monarchy, where a ceremonial monarch is the head of state and a prime minister is the head of government:

Parliamentary republics

In a parliamentary republic, the head of state is a president or a directory. In a parliamentary republic with a ceremonial head of state, the head of government has the title of a prime minister, chancellor, or premier.

Parliamentary republics with directly elected ceremonial heads of state
Parliamentary republics with indirectly elected ceremonial heads of state
Parliamentary republics with an executive president

The following countries have a president who is both the head of state and the head of government; together with a cabinet, they are responsible to the legislature:

Presidential systems

In a presidential system, an elected president is the head of government and is independent from the legislature. Unlike in a parliamentary or a semi-presidential system, a prime minister (if one exists) and the cabinet are not responsible to the legislature.

Presidential republics without a prime minister

Presidential republics with a prime minister

Semi-presidential systems

In a semi-presidential system, a president exists alongside a prime minister and a cabinet, with the latter two being responsible to the legislature. It differs from a parliamentary system in that it has a president independent from the legislature with significant executive or legislative powers which can include: nomination or dismissal of individual ministers, dissolution of parliament, or a veto that requires an extraordinary majority to overrule. Unlike in a presidential system, a prime minister and a cabinet are responsible to the legislature.[1]

President-parliamentary republics

The following countries are president-parliamentary republics, where a prime minister and a cabinet are dually responsible to the president and the legislature:[1]

Premier-presidential republics

The following countries are premier-presidential republics, where a prime minister and a cabinet are exclusively responsible to the legislature:[1]

Assembly-independent systems

In an assembly-independent system, the head of government (either an individual or a directory) is appointed by the legislature, but is not responsible to it.[1]

Other systems

Executive monarchies

In the following countries, a monarch retains significant executive or legislative powers which they can use at their discretion.[34] This is unlike a constitutional monarchy, in which the monarch only has nominal power over the government (or de jure has no political power).

Semi-constitutional monarchies

The following countries are semi-constitutional monarchies, where the monarch's power is limited by law and a prime minister is the head of government:

Absolute monarchies

The following countries are absolute monarchies, where the monarch's power is not limited by law and they are both the head of state and the head of government:

One-party states

The following countries are one-party states by law, in contrast to dominant-party systems; a single political party has a legally codified monopoly over politics, and its operations are fused with that of the government.

Military juntas

The following countries are ruled by a military junta; the constitutional forms of government are stated in parentheses:

Provisional governments

The following countries are ruled by a provisional government; constitutional forms of government are stated in parentheses:

Islamic republic

Islamic theocracy

Systems of internal structure

Unitary states

Main article: Unitary state

A state governed as a single power in which the central government is ultimately supreme and any administrative divisions (sub-national units) exercise only the powers that the central government chooses to delegate. The majority of states in the world have a unitary system of government. Of the 193 UN member states, 126 are governed as centralized unitary states, and an additional 40 are regionalized unitary states.

Centralized unitary states

States in which most power is exercised by the central government. What local authorities do exist have few powers.

Regionalized unitary states

Main article: Regional state

States in which the central government has delegated some of its powers to regional authorities, but where constitutional authority ultimately remains entirely at a national level.

Federation

Main article: Federation

States in which the national government shares power with regional governments with which it has legal or constitutional parity. The central government may or may not be (in theory) a creation of the regional governments.

European Union

Main article: List of European Union member states by political system

The exact political character of the European Union is debated, some arguing that it is sui generis (unique), but others arguing that it has features of a federation or a confederation. It has elements of intergovernmentalism, with the European Council acting as its collective "president", and also elements of supranationalism, with the European Commission acting as its executive and bureaucracy.[60]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The Bishop of Urgell and President of France serve as ex officio co-princes who have their interests known through a representative.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Not a UN member state.
  3. ^ Bosnia and Herzegovina's ceremonial head of state is a triumvirate; three members are elected, one for each major ethnic group.
  4. ^ San Marino is a diarchy. Two ceremonial Captains Regent are appointed by legislature for six month terms. Congress of State is the government. Secretary for Foreign Affairs is traditionally regarded as the de facto head of the Sammarinese government.
  5. ^ The president is elected by parliament and holds a parliamentary seat (as an ex-officio), much like a prime minister. If a vote of no confidence is successful and they do not resign, it triggers the dissolution of the legislature and new elections (per section 92 of the Constitution).
  6. ^ The President and legislature are elected directly by the people via double simultaneous vote.
  7. ^ The president is constitutionally obligated to dissolve parliament after a successful no-confidence motion against the government (article 106(6)) and new elections are called within 3 months (article 61).[15]
  8. ^ Per the Constitution, Kiribati's president is elected by plurality voting after candidates for the presidency are nominated by the newly elected legislature. If a vote of no confidence against the president is successful, they are removed from office and the legislature stands dissolved (triggering a new election for it). In the interim, a body known as the "Council of State" (comprising the chief justice, the president of the public service commission and speaker of the legislature) carries out the role of the presidency.
  9. ^ According to constitution of Suriname the Parliament is the highest college of state, and that the government is accountable to parliament; Constitution Chapter XIII, Art. 117, paragraph 2. The parliament can also remove the president by majority vote based on article 74a, 82 of the constitution. Constitution Suriname Wikipedia).
  10. ^ The President and legislature are elected directly by the people via double simultaneous vote.
  11. ^ The President and legislature are elected directly by the people via double simultaneous vote.
  12. ^ The President and legislature are elected directly by the people via double simultaneous vote.
  13. ^ The Republic of Austria is de jure semi-presidential according to the country's Constitution, but de facto behaves more like a parliamentary republic. According to constitutional convention, the Chancellor is the country's leading political figure, despite nominally being ranked third according to the Constitution.
  14. ^ Nominally a parliamentary republic; the semi-presidential system is based on temporary additional articles. According to the Constitution of the Republic of China, the National Assembly indirectly elects the President of the Republic, which is the ceremonial figurehead of the state. Executive power rested with the President of the Executive Yuan, who is nominated and appointed by the president, with the consent of the Legislative Yuan. The additional articles made the President directly elected by the citizens of the free area and replaced Legislative Yuan confirmation for Premieral appointments with a conventional vote of no confidence, superseding the ordinary constitutional provisions. A sunset clause in the additional articles will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in Mainland China.
  15. ^ Holds a legislative seat.
  16. ^ The Federal Council, a seven-member directory appointed by the parliament, is the collective head of state and government of Switzerland. The president of Switzerland is a first among equals post rotating yearly among the members of the council in order of seniority.
  17. ^ The Holy See, a sovereign entity under international law and the government of Vatican City State, is recognized as an UN observer state. The Vatican is an elective absolute monarchy and a Roman Catholic theocracy; its monarch, the Pope, is the head of the global Roman Catholic Church.
  18. ^ The President of China is legally a ceremonial office; however, since 1993, the presidency has been held by the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, who is the most powerful figure in the political system.[37] For more info see politics of China.
  19. ^ Palestine is a UN observer state.
  20. ^ Disputed between the internationally recognized Presidential Leadership Council and the Supreme Political Council recognized by Iran.[52]
  21. ^ Afghanistan: As of December 2022, despite the loss of territory to the Taliban in 2021, the Islamic Republic continues to hold Afghanistan's seat at the United Nations, though its voting rights were suspended in May of 2024 due to nonpayment of dues.[53] The Islamic Emirate remains unrecognized by the organization.[54]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Shugart, Matthew Søberg (December 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns". French Politics. 3 (3): 323–351. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087.
  2. ^ "Bulgaria's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2015" (PDF). www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  3. ^ "Croatia's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2010" (PDF). www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  4. ^ "Czech Republic 1993 (rev. 2013)". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  5. ^ "Iceland's Constitution of 1944 with Amendments through 2013" (PDF). www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  6. ^ "Ireland's Constitution of 1937 with Amendments through 2012" (PDF). www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  7. ^ "Moldova (Republic of) 1994 (rev. 2016)". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  8. ^ "Montenegro 2007". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  9. ^ "Serbia 2006". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  10. ^ "Singapore 1963 (rev. 2016)". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  11. ^ "Slovakia 1992 (rev. 2017)". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  12. ^ "Slovenia 1991 (rev. 2013)". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  13. ^ "San Marino: Constitution - 1974" (PDF). Peaceful Assembly Worldwide.
  14. ^ "San Marino: Freedom in the World 2021 Country Report".
  15. ^ Constitution (2012). "CONSTITUTION OF THE CO-OPERATIVE REPUBLIC OF GUYANA ACT" (PDF). Parliament of Guyana.
  16. ^ "Kiribati's Constitution of 1979 with Amendments through 1995" (PDF). www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  17. ^ "Marshall Islands 1979 (rev. 1995)". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  18. ^ "Nauru 1968 (rev. 2015)". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  19. ^ "South Africa's Constitution of 1996 with Amendments through 2012" (PDF). www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  20. ^ "Grondwet Suriname 1987 (Suriname 1987 Constitution)". www.dna.sr. Retrieved 4 February 2025.
  21. ^ "CONSTITUIÇÃO DA REPÚBLICA DE ANGOLA" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 March 2012. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
  22. ^ a b Zaznaev, Oleg (2005). "Атипичные президентские и полупрезидентские системы" [Atypical presidential and semi-presidential systems]. Uchenyye Zapiski Kazanskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta (in Russian). 147 (1): 62–64. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
  23. ^ Constitution of Belarus, 106, 97.5 97.7.
  24. ^ Leubnoudji Tan Nathan (4 October 2023). "Chad's Proposed New Constitution: Between Hopes for Refoundation and an Uncertain Future". ConstitutionNet. International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. Retrieved 12 June 2024.
  25. ^ https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-AD(2017)010-e [bare URL]
  26. ^ "Poland 1997 (rev. 2009)". www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
  27. ^ Veser, Ernst [in German] (23 September 1997). "Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's Concept — A New Political System Model" (PDF). Department of Education, School of Education, University of Cologne, zh. pp. 39–60. Retrieved 21 August 2017. Duhamel has developed the approach further: He stresses that the French construction does not correspond to either parliamentary or the presidential form of government, and then develops the distinction of 'système politique' and 'régime constitutionnel'. While the former comprises the exercise of power that results from the dominant institutional practice, the latter is the totality of the rules for the dominant institutional practice of power. In this way, France appears as 'presidentialist system' endowed with a 'semi-presidential regime' (1983: 587). By this standard, he recognizes Duverger's pléiade as semi-presidential regimes, as well as Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and Lithuania (1993: 87).
  28. ^ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (September 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
  29. ^ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (December 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). French Politics. 3 (3): 323–351. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087. Retrieved 21 August 2017. Even if the president has no discretion in the forming of cabinets or the right to dissolve parliament, his or her constitutional authority can be regarded as 'quite considerable' in Duverger's sense if cabinet legislation approved in parliament can be blocked by the people's elected agent. Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto, as in Mongolia, Poland, and Senegal. In these cases, while the government is fully accountable to Parliament, it cannot legislate without taking the potentially different policy preferences of the president into account.
  30. ^ McMenamin, Iain. "Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation in Poland" (PDF). School of Law and Government, Dublin City University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 February 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
  31. ^ [26][27][28][29][30]
  32. ^ Kudelia, Serhiy (4 May 2018). "Presidential activism and government termination in dual-executive Ukraine". Post-Soviet Affairs. 34 (4): 246–261. doi:10.1080/1060586X.2018.1465251. S2CID 158492144.
  33. ^ "Micronesia (Federated States of)'s Constitution of 1978 with Amendments through 1990" (PDF). www.constituteproject.org. Retrieved 11 January 2020.
  34. ^ "Opinion on the amendments to the constitution of Liechtenstein proposed by the Princely House of Liechtenstein". Venice Commission.
  35. ^ Stewart, Dona J. (2013). The Middle East Today: Political, Geographical and Cultural Perspectives. London and New York: Routledge. p. 155. ISBN 978-0415782432.
  36. ^ Day, Alan John (1996). Political Parties of The World. Stockton. p. 599. ISBN 1561591440.
  37. ^ Chris Buckley and Adam Wu (10 March 2018). "Ending Term Limits for China's Xi Is a Big Deal. Here's Why. – Is the presidency powerful in China?". New York Times. Archived from the original on 12 March 2018. Retrieved 1 December 2019. In China, the political job that matters most is the general secretary of the Communist Party. The party controls the military and domestic security forces and sets the policies that the government carries out. China's presidency lacks the authority of the American and French presidencies.
  38. ^ "Burkina Faso military says it has seized power". BBC News. 24 January 2022. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  39. ^ "Gabon army officers say they have seized power after election in oil-rich country". Reuters. 30 August 2023. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  40. ^ "Army colonel on Guinean TV says govt dissolved, borders shut". AP NEWS. 5 September 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2021.
  41. ^ "Guinea coup attempt: Soldiers claim to seize power from Alpha Condé". BBC News. 5 September 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2021.
  42. ^ Booty, Natasha; Pivac, Mark (23 July 2023). "Assimi Goïta: President gets sweeping powers in new Mali constitution". BBC News. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
  43. ^ Abebe, Adem; Bulmer, Elliot (2019). "Electing Presidents in Presidential and Semi-Presidential Democracies" (PDF). International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  44. ^ Paddock, Richard C. (31 March 2022). "Myanmar Junta's Political Prisoners Since Coup Now Number 10,000". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 April 2022.
  45. ^ Aksar, Moussa; Balima, Boureima (27 July 2023). "Niger soldiers say President Bazoum's government has been removed". Reuters. Retrieved 27 July 2023.
  46. ^ Gavin, Michelle (8 April 2022). "Junta and Public at Odds in Sudan". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
  47. ^ Jeffrey, Jack (23 October 2022). "Analysis: Year post-coup, cracks in Sudan's military junta". Associated Press News. Cairo, Egypt. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
  48. ^ "Sudan's Constitution of 2005" (PDF). constituteproject.org. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
  49. ^ Shaikh, Emran Hossain (7 August 2024). "Interim govt: What the law says". Dhaka Tribune.
  50. ^ "Dr Yunus-led interim govt legal: SC". THE BUSINESS STANDARD. 9 August 2024. Archived from the original on 10 August 2024. Retrieved 10 August 2024.
  51. ^ United Nations General Assembly Session 67 Resolution 19. Status of Palestine in the United Nations A/RES/67/19 2012-11-29. "Taking into consideration that the Executive Committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization, in accordance with a decision by the Palestine National Council, is entrusted with the powers and responsibilities of the Provisional Government of the State of Palestine"
  52. ^ Ghobari, Mohamed; Tolba, Ahmed (8 April 2022). "Yemen president cedes powers to council as Saudi Arabia pushes to end war". Reuters. Aden. Retrieved 14 April 2022.
  53. ^ "Afghanistan Temporarily Loses UN Voting Rights Due To Unpaid Dues". Afghanistan International. 13 May 2024.
  54. ^ Nichols, Michelle (15 December 2022). "Afghan Taliban Administration, Myanmar Junta Not Allowed Into United Nations for Now". Reuters. Archived from the original on 22 December 2022. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
  55. ^ Bezhan, Frud (7 September 2021). "Key Figures In The Taliban's New Theocratic Government". Radio Farda. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 6 February 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2025.
  56. ^ George, Susannah (18 February 2023). "Inside the Taliban campaign to forge a religious emirate". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 19 February 2025.
  57. ^ Ahmad, Javid (26 January 2022). "The Taliban's religious roadmap for Afghanistan". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 26 November 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2025.
  58. ^ Ziaei, Hadia (4 September 2022). "Officials: Afghanistan Does Not Need a Constitution". TOLOnews. Archived from the original on 26 November 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2025.
  59. ^ Dawi, Akmal (28 March 2023). "Unseen Taliban Leader Wields Godlike Powers in Afghanistan". Voice of America. Retrieved 19 February 2025.
  60. ^ For a more detailed discussion, see John McCormick, European Union Politics (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), Chapters 1 and 2.
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